EMDR

Q. What is EMDR Therapy?

EMDR stands for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. It is a form of therapy that helps people heal from trauma or other distressing life experiences. EMDR therapy has been extensively researched and is recommended for trauma treatment.

Our brains have a natural way of recovering from traumatic memories and events. Sometimes this natural recovery process can't be resolved without help.

EMDR therapy is designed to resolve unprocessed traumatic memories in the brain. For many clients, signs of trauma like those above will diminish or disappear once EMDR therapy is complete.

After the therapist and client agree that EMDR therapy is a good fit, the beginning sessions will involve discussing what the client wants to work on and improving the client's ability to manage distress.

When ready for the next phases of EMDR therapy, the client will be asked to focus on a specific event. Attention will be given to a negative image, belief, emotion, and body feeling related to this event and then to a positive belief indicating the issue was resolved.

While the client focuses on the upsetting event, the therapist will begin sets of side-to-side eye movements, sounds, or taps. The client will be guided to notice what comes to mind after each set. They may experience shifts in insight or changes in images, feelings, or beliefs regarding the event.

The client has complete control to stop the therapist at any point if needed. The sets of eye movements, sounds, or taps are repeated until the event becomes less disturbing.

EMDR therapy may be used within a standard talking therapy, as adjunctive therapy with a separate therapist, or as a treatment.

Phase 1: History and Treatment Planning

This phase generally takes 1-2 sessions at the beginning of therapy and can continue throughout the therapy, especially if new problems are revealed. In the first phase of EMDR treatment, the therapist takes a thorough history of the client and develops a treatment plan. This phase will include a discussion of the specific problem that has brought him or her into therapy and the behaviors and symptoms stemming from that problem. With this information, the therapist will develop a treatment plan that defines the specific targets on which to use EMDR:

the event(s) from the past that created the problem
the present situations that cause distress
the key skills or behaviors the client needs to learn for his future well-being

One of the unusual features of EMDR is that the person seeking treatment does not have to discuss any of his or her disturbing memories in detail. So while some individuals are comfortable and even prefer giving specifics, others may present more of a general picture or outline. When the therapist asks, for example, "What event do you remember that made you feel worthless and useless?" the person may say, "It was something my brother did to me." That is all the information the therapist needs to identify and target the event with EMDR.

Phase 2: Preparation

For most clients, this phase will take between 1-4 sessions. For others with a very traumatized background or with certain diagnoses, a longer time may be necessary. In this phase, the therapist will teach you some specific techniques so you can rapidly deal with any emotional disturbance that may arise. If you can do that, you can generally proceed to the next phase.

One of the primary goals of the preparation phase is to establish a relationship of trust between the client and the therapist. While the person does not have to go into great detail about his disturbing memories, if the EMDR client does not trust his or her therapist, he or she may not accurately report what is felt and what changes he or she is (or isn't) experiencing during the eye movements. If the client just wants to please the therapist and says they feel better when they don't, no therapy in the world will resolve that client's trauma.

During the Preparation Phase, the therapist will explain the theory of EMDR, how it is done, and what the person can expect during and after treatment. Finally, the therapist will teach the client various relaxation techniques for calming him or herself in the face of any emotional disturbance that may arise during or after a session.

In any form of therapy, it is best to look at the therapist as a facilitator or guide who needs to hear of any hurt, need, or disappointments to help achieve the common goal. EMDR therapy is a great deal more than just eye movements, and the therapist needs to know when to employ any of the needed procedures to keep the processing going. Learning these tools is an important aid for anyone. The happiest people on the planet have ways of relaxing themselves and decompressing from life's inevitable and often unsuspected stress. One goal of EMDR therapy is to ensure the client can take care of himself or herself.

Phase 3: Assessment

In this phase, the client will be prompted to access each target in a controlled and standardized way to be effectively processed. Processing does not mean talking about it. (See the Reprocessing sections below.) The EMDR therapist identifies different parts of the target to be processed.

The first step is for the client to select a specific image or mental picture from the target event (identified during Phase One) that best represents the memory. Then he or she chooses a statement that expresses a negative self-belief associated with the event. Even if the client intellectually knows that the statement is false, he or she must focus on it. These negative beliefs are verbalizations of the disturbing emotions that still exist. Common negative cognitions include statements such as "I am helpless," "I am worthless," "I am unlovable," "I am dirty," "I am bad," etc.

The client then picks a positive self-statement that he would rather believe. This statement should incorporate an internal sense of control, such as "I am worthwhile/lovable/a good person/in control" or "I can succeed." Sometimes, when the primary emotion is fear, such as in the aftermath of a natural disaster, the negative cognition can be, "I am in danger," and the positive cognition can be, "I am safe now." "I am in danger" can be considered a negative cognition because the fear is inappropriate -- it is locked in the nervous system, but the danger is past. Positive cognition should reflect what is appropriate in the present.

The therapist will then ask the person to estimate how true a positive belief feels using the 1-to-7 Validity of Cognition (VOC) scale. "1" equals "completely false," and " 7" equals "completely true." It is essential to give a score that reflects how the person "feels," not " thinks." We may logically "know" something is wrong, but we are most driven by how it " feels."

Also, during the Assessment Phase, the person identifies the negative emotions (fear, anger) and physical sensations (tightness in the stomach, cold hands) he or she associates with the target. The client also rates the negative belief but uses a different scale called the Subjective Units of Disturbance (SUD) scale. This scale rates the feeling from 0 (no disturbance) to 10 (worst) and assesses the client's feelings.

The goal of EMDR treatment, in the following phases, is for SUD scores of disturbance to decrease while the VOC scores of positive belief increase.

Reprocessing. For a single trauma, reprocessing is generally accomplished within three sessions. If it takes longer, you should see some improvement within that time. Phases One through Three lay the groundwork for the comprehensive treatment and reprocessing of the specific targeted events. Although eye movements (or taps or tones) are used during the following three phases, they are only one component of a complex therapy. The step-by-step eight-phase approach allows the experienced, trained EMDR therapist to maximize the treatment effects for the client in a logical and standardized fashion. It also allows the client and the therapist to monitor the progress during every treatment session.

Phase 4: Desensitization

This phase focuses on the client's disturbing emotions and sensations as measured by the SUDs rating. This phase deals with the person's responses (including other memories, insights, and associations that may arise) as the targeted event changes and its disturbing elements are resolved. This phase gives the opportunity to identify and resolve similar events that may have occurred and are associated with the target. That way, a client can surpass his or her initial goals and heal beyond expectations.

During desensitization, the therapist leads the person in sets of eye movements, sounds, or taps with appropriate shifts and changes of focus until his or her SUD-scale levels are reduced to zero (or 1 or 2 if this is more appropriate). Starting with the main target, the different associations to the memory are followed. For instance, a person may start with a horrific event and soon have other associations to it. The therapist will guide the client to a complete resolution of the target.

Examples of sessions and a three-session transcript of a complete treatment can be found in F. Shapiro & M.S. Forrest (2004) EMDR. New York: BasicBooks. http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com/perseus-cgi-bin/display/0-465-04301-1

Phase 5: Installation

The goal is to concentrate on and increase the strength of the positive belief that the client has identified to replace his or her original negative belief. For example, the client might begin with a mental image of being beaten up by his or her father and a negative belief of "I am powerless." During the Desensitization Phase, that client will have reprocessed the terror of that childhood event and fully realized that as an adult, he or she now has strength and choices that were not there when he or she was young.

During this fifth phase of treatment, that person's positive cognition, "I am now in control," will be strengthened and installed. How deeply the person believes that positive cognition is then measured using the Validity of Cognition (VOC) scale. The goal is for the person to accept the full truth of his or her positive self-statement at a level of 7 (completely true).

Fortunately, just as EMDR cannot make anyone shed appropriate negative feelings, it cannot make the person believe anything positive that is not appropriate either. So if the person is aware that he or she needs to learn some new skill, such as self-defense training, to be truly in control of the situation, the validity of that positive belief will rise only to the corresponding level, such as a 5 or 6 on the VOC scale.

Phase 6: Body Scan

After the positive cognition has been strengthened and installed, the therapist will ask the person to bring the original target event to mind and see if any residual tension is noticed in the body. If so, these physical sensations are then targeted for reprocessing.

Evaluations of thousands of EMDR sessions indicate that there is a physical response to unresolved thoughts. This finding has been supported by independent studies of memory indicating that when a person is negatively affected by trauma, information about the traumatic event is stored in body memory (motoric memory), rather than narrative memory and retains the negative emotions and physical sensations of the original event. However, when that information is processed, it can then move to narrative (or verbalizable) memory, and the body sensations and negative feelings associated with it disappear.

Therefore, an EMDR session is not considered successful until the client can bring up the original target without feeling any body tension. Positive self-beliefs are important, but they have to be believed on more than just an intellectual level.

Phase 7: Closure

Ends every treatment session. Closure ensures that the person leaves feeling better at the end of each session than at the beginning.

If the processing of the traumatic target event is not complete in a single session, the therapist will assist the client in using a variety of self-calming techniques in order to regain a sense of equilibrium. Throughout the EMDR session, the client has been in control (for instance, the client is instructed that it is okay to raise a hand in the "stop" gesture at any time) and it is essential that the client continue to feel in control outside the therapist's office.

He or she is also briefed on what to expect between sessions (some processing may continue, some new material may arise), how to use a journal to record these experiences, and what calming techniques could be used to self-soothe in the client's life outside of the therapy session.

Phase 8: Reevaluation

Opens every new session. The Reevaluation Phase guides the therapist through the treatment plans needed to deal with the client's problems. As with any form of sound therapy, the Reevaluation Phase is vital to determine the success of the treatment over time. Although clients may feel relief almost immediately with EMDR, it is as essential to complete the eight phases of treatment as it is to complete an entire course of treatment with antibiotics.

The Role of Past, Present, and Future Templates

EMDR therapy is not complete until attention has been brought to the past memories contributing to the problem, the disturbing present situations, and what skills the client may need for the future.

Resources

Excerpts above from: F. Shapiro & M.S. Forrest (2004) EMDR: The Breakthrough Therapy for Anxiety, Stress and Trauma. New York: BasicBooks. http://www.perseusbooksgroup.com/perseus-cgi-bin/display/0-465-04301-1

Trauma and Brain

Clinical Practice Resources on Using Online EMDR Therapy

Protocols, Presentations, and Web Resources:

EMDRIA. (2020). Tips for Maintaining the Therapeutic Relationship in Online EMDR Therapy. Infographic. Go With That Magazine, Summer 2020. https://www.emdria.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Online-EMDR-Therapy-Alliance.3.pdf

Kaufman, S. (2020). Visionary & Virtual: Aligning Our Online Practices. Go With That Magazine, Summer 2020. https://www.emdria.org/publications-resources/go-with-that-magazine/

Luber, M. Editor. (2020). EMDR resources in the era of COVID-19.

Click here to access with permission: EMDR Resources in the Era of COVID-19.

Quinn, G. (2020, March 30). Self-Care procedure for coronavirus (SCP-C).

To access a PDF of this protocol (available with permission), click here

Veterans Health Administration. National Center for PTSD (2020, March). Treating PTSD during the COVID-19 virus outbreak. Retrieved from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/consult/2020lecture_archive/03182020_lecture_slides.pdf

Presentation for providers who treat veterans.

Watson Wong, J. (2013). EMDRIA Annual Conference. EMDR internet therapy [Poster Presentation]. Retrieved from: http://www.online-emdr.com/Poster.pdf

Watson Wong, J. (2020, March). Internet presencing essentials V3.5: For eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) professionals.

Paper to inform the EMDRIA board virtual training and therapy task group.
To access a PDF of this paper (available with permission), click here

Video Resources:

Central Ohio EMDR Connection. (2020, March 25). Ethics of EMDR therapy and telehealth during COVID-19. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1112&v=fp_463Pj2H4&feature=emb_logo

Kiessling, R. (2020, March 25). EMDR telehealth video - H.264 for video podcasting. Vimeo. https://vimeo.com/400735353

Marchand, J. & Hogg, R. (2020, March 17). Comprehensive demo on offering BLS (eye movements and tactile) through HIPAA-compliant telehealth platforms.

Vimeo. https://vimeo.com/398125255
Trauma-Responsive Preparations for Online EMDR [PDF], Marchand & Hogg. Available with permission.
Technological Preparation for Online EMDR [PDF]. Marchand & Hogg. Available with permission.

Marich, J. EMDR Therapy Telehealth [Videos].

Calm Safe Place & Container: EMDR Therapy Preparation Telehealth Demo. (2020, May 25). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XJEULdhOMw&feature=youtu.be
EMDR Therapy and Telehealth: One Year Later. (2021, January 10). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ti2TKuVvdwU
Mini EMDR Therapy Telehealth Demonstration. (2020, May 31). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=26&v=KpAPWsUlKtE&feature=emb_logo
Remote EMDR Therapy Demonstration. (2020, April 4). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yh37KvS9Pf8&t=496s

Schubert, S. (2020, March 25). EMDR online: Basic tips to get started. You Tube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAah57BUwZs&feature=youtu.be

Telehealth Certification Institute, LLC (2019, April 18). Virtual EMDR. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2230&v=8XsPBeUmjlw&feature=emb_title

Books or Chapters:

Farrell, D., & Clifford, C. (2022). Digital eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. In H. Wilson (Ed.), Digital delivery of mental health therapies: A guide to the benefits and challenges, and making it work. (pp. 213-225).London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Flynn, J. (2021).Virtual EMDR and telemental health play therapy. In J. Stone (Ed.), Play therapy and telemental health: Foundations, populations, and interventions. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003166498

Marchand, J., & Simpson, M. (2022). Inviting the body, movement, and the creative arts into telehealth: A culturally responsive model for online EMDR preparation. In E. Davis, J. Fitzgerald, S. Jacobs, and J. Marchand (Eds.), EMDR and creative arts therapies. New York, NY: Springer

O’Shea Brown, G. (2021). Reflections on providing virtual eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in the wake of COVID-19: Survival through adaptation. In C. Tosone (Ed.), Shared trauma, shared resilience during a pandemic (pp. 235-248). Essential Clinical Social Work Series. New York, NY: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61442-3_25

Podcasts:

Savage, J., & Sundwall, M. (2020, April 8). EMDR and telehealth (Episode 24) [Podcast]. In Notice That Podcast. http://emdr-podcast.com/episode-24-emdr-and-telehealth/

Other:

Howard, K. (2018). The effectiveness of EMDR therapy delivered via an e-Health platform in the treatment of complex sexual abuse utilizing the ‘Abate Abuse’ protocol. Presentation at EMDR Europe Conference, Strasbourg, France. Retrieved March 23, 2020 from https://remdr.online/

Free Resources for EMDR Professionals

Springer Publishing Company: http://pages.springerpub.com/covid-19-resources.html#nav-5

Peer-Reviewed Articles About Online EMDR Therapy

Peer-Reviewed Articles About Online EMDR Therapy:

Bates, A., Rushbrook, S., Shapiro, E., Grocott, M., & Cusack, R. (2020). CovEMERALD: Assessing the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of remotely delivered eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing following Covid-19 related critical illness: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BioMedCentral, 21: 929. Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04805-1

Bongaerts, H. Voorendonk, E. M., van Minnen, A., & de Jongh, A. (2021). Safety and effectiveness of intensive treatment for complex PTSD delivered via home-based telehealth. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1860346. Open access: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1860346

Bongaerts, H., Voorendonk, E. M., van Minnen, A., Rozendaal, L., Telkamp, B. S. D., & de Jongh, A. (2022). Fully remote intensive trauma-focused treatment for PTSD and complex PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(2): 2103287. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2022.2103287

Bursnall, M., Thomas, B. D., Berntsson, H., Strong, E., Brayne, M. & Hind, D. (2022). Clinician and patient experience of internet-mediated eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy. Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Mental Health, 28. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40737-022-00260-0

Faretta, E., Garau, M. I., Gallina, E., Pagani, M., & Fernandez, I. (2022). Supporting healthcare workers in times of COVID-19 with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing online: A pilot study. Frontiers in Psychology. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.964407

Fisher, N. (2021). Using EMDR therapy to treat clients remotely. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 15(1), 73-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-D-20-00041

Kaptan, S. K., Varese, F., Yilmaz, B., Andriopoulou, P., & Husain, N. (2022). “Online delivery gave me privacy and distance from others”: Feasibility trial and qualitative evaluation of an online intervention for refugees and asylum seekers; LTP + EMDR G-TEP. Counselling & Psychotherapy Research. Open Access: https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12580

Lazzaroni, E., Invenizzi, R., Fogliato, E., Pagani, M., & Maslovaric, G. (2021). Coronavirus disease 2019 emergency and remote eye movement desensitization and reprocessing group therapy with adolescents and young adults: Overcoming lockdown with the butterfly hug. Frontiers in Psychology, Psychology for Clinical Settings, 701381. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.701381

Lenferink, L. I. M., Meyerbroker, K., & Boelen, P. A. (2020). PTSD treatment in times of COVID-19: A systematic review of the effects of online EMDR. Psychiatry Research, 293:113438. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113438

Liou, H., Lane, C., Huang, C., Mookadam, M., Joseph, M., & Hecker DuVal, J. (2022). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in a primary care setting: Assessing utility and comparing efficacy of virtual versus in-person methods. Telemedicine and e-Health, Ahead of Print. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2021.0454

Marotta-Walters, S.A., Jain, K., DeNardo, J., Kaur, P., & Kaligounder, S. (2018). A review of mobile applications for facilitating EMDR treatment of complex trauma and its comordities. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 12(1), 2-15. Open access: http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1933-3196.12.1.2

Maxfield, L. (2021). Low-intensity interventions and EMDR therapy. Journal of EMDR Practice & Research, 15(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-D-21-00009

McGowan, I. W., Fisher, N., Havens, J., & Proudlock, S. (2021). An evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy delivered remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21, 560. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03571-x

Mischler, C., Hofmann, A., Behnke, A., Matits, L., Lehnung, M., Varadarajan, S., Rojas, R., Kolassa, I-T., & Tumani, V. (2021). Therapists’ experiences with the effectiveness and feasibility of videoconference-based eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Frontiers in Psychology: Psychology for Clinical Settings, 748712. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.748712

Moench, J., & Billsten, O. (2021). Randomized controlled trial: Self-care traumatic episode protocol (STEP), computerized EMDR treatment of COVID-19 related stress. Journal of EMDR Practice & Research, 15(2), 99-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-D-20-00047

Papanikolopoulos, P., Prattos, T., & Foundoulakis, E. (2022). Pandemic times and the experience of online EMDR practice in Greece: A qualitative study on obstacles and perspectives. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 16(3), 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-2021-0033

Perri, R. L., Castelli, P., La Rosa, C., Zucchi, T., & Onofri, A. (2021). COVID-19, isolation, quarantine: on the efficacy of internet-based eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for ongoing trauma. Brain Sciences, 11(5), 579. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050579

Sagaltici, E., Cetinkaya, M., Kocamer Sahin, S., Gulen, B., & Karaman, S. (2022). Recent traumatic episode protocol EMDR applied online for COVID-19 related symptoms of Turkish health care workers diagnosed with COVID-19 related PTSD: A pilot study. Alpha Psychiatry, 23(3), 121-127. Open access: https://doi.org/10.5152/alphapsychiatry.2022.21763

Spence, J., Titov, N., Johnson, L., Dear, B. F., Wootton, B., Terides, M., & Zou, J. (2013). Internet-delivered eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (iEMDR): An open trial [version 2; peer review: 2 approved]. F1000Research, 2:79. Open access: https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.2-79.v2

Tarquinio, C., Brennstuhl, M., Rydberg, J. A., Bassan, F., Peter, L., Tarquinio, C. L., & . . . Tarquinio, P. (2020). EMDR in telemental health counseling for healthcare workers caring for COVID-19 patients: A pilot study. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, published online. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2020.1818014

Todder, D., & Kaplan, Z. (2007). Rapid eye movements for acute stress disorder using video conference communication. Telemedicine and e-Health, (13)4, 461-464. http://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2006.0058

Winkler, O., Dhaliwal, R., Greenwhaw, A., O’Shea, K., Abba-Aji, A., Chima, C., Purdon, S. E., & Burback, L. (2021). Web-based eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for adults with suicidal ideation: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial. JMIR Research Protocols, 10(11): e30711. Open access: https://doi.org/10.2196/30711

Yurtsever, A., Bakalim, O., Karaman, S., Kaya, S., & Konuk, E. (2022). The effect of the online eye movement desensitization and reprocessing early intervention protocol (EMDR R-TEP) for the risk groups with post-traumatic stress symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 935782. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.935782

Dissertations:

Elledge, B. D., (2021). The efficacy of online eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)- informed therapy for clients with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms (28961959). [Doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://www.proquest.com/openview/c858bb6307142f53e72a16f35ece6259/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Feenstra, S. E. (2021). The effectiveness of an online-delivered intensive treatment programme for PTSD, combining PE, EMDR therapy, physical activity and psycho-education. [Master’s thesis, Utrecht University]. Utrecht University Repository. https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/405559

Pohjanheimo, R. J. (2020). Mood effects of immersion, control, and interaction in virtual reality eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy. [Master’s thesis, University of Twente]. University of Twente Student Theses Repository. http://essay.utwente.nl/83847/

Books/Chapters:

Oren, U. & Meignant, I. (2023). Online EMDR therapy in the COVID-19 era and beyond. In H. Weinberg, A. Rolnick, & A. Leighton (Eds.) Advances in online therapy: Emergence of a new paradigm. New York, NY: Routledge.

EMDR Therapy During the Time of COVID-19

Articles:

Adithy, A., de Wit, E. E., Bunders-Aelen, J. G. F. (2022). EMDR in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic in India: A short report. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 16(2), 68-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/EMDR-2021-0011

Auble, K. (2021, April 2). How EMDR helped me find healing in a most daunting year. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/article/how-emdr-helped-me-find-healing-in-a-most-daunting-year

Bates, A., Rushbrook, S., Shapiro, E., Grocott, M., & Cusack, R. (2020). CovEMERALD: Assessing the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of remotely delivered Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing following COVID-19 related critical illness: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BioMedCentral, 21: 929 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04805-1

Berard, Y. (2021, April 26). As COVID winds down, concerns about mental health grow. EMS World. https://www.emsworld.com/news/1225779/covid-winds-down-concerns-about-mental-health-grow

Brennstuhl, M., Tarquinio, P., Rydberg, J. A., Tarquinio, C. L., Peter, L., Rotonda, C., & Tarquinio, C. (2022). Treating COVID-19 patients with EMDR: A pilot study. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 100276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2022.100276

Bromsgrove Editorial. (2021). Some Covid-19 hospital patients 'suffer PTSD' - what are the key signs? Bromsgrove Standard. https://www.bromsgrovestandard.co.uk/lifestyle/some-covid-19-hospital-patients-suffer-ptsd-what-are-the-key-signs-27704/

Contreras, A. What a trauma therapist wants everyone to know during the COVID-19 pandemic. Yahoo News (2020, May 13). https://news.yahoo.com/trauma-therapist-wants-everyone-know-004416923.html

Dinapoli, L., Ferrarese, D., Belella, D., Carnevale, S., Camardese, G., Sani, G., & Chieffo, D. P. R. (2022). Psychological treatment of traumatic memories in COVID-19 survivors. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2771

Doherty, A., Benedetto, V., Harris, C., Boland, P., Christian, D. L., Hill, J., Bhutani, G., & Clegg, A. J. (2021). The effectiveness of psychological support interventions for those exposed to mass infectious disease outbreaks: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 21, 592. Open access: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03602-7

El-Abbassy, A. A., EL Berry, K. I., El Mageed, H. H. A., & Amer, H. M. (2021). The effect of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing technique on COVID-19 induced anxiety, depression, sleep quality among emergency nurses. Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 25(5), 3185-3205. Open access retrieval from: http://annalsofrscb.ro/index.php/journal/article/view/4931

Fabian, R. How therapists are adapting EMDR trauma therapy during COVID-19. Yahoo News (2020, April 29). https://news.yahoo.com/therapists-adapting-emdr-trauma-therapy-224623524.html

Faretta, E., Maslovaric, G., Garau, M. I., Marmondi, G., Piras, L., Rezzola, S., Incerti, A., Nardoni, A., Pagani, M., & Gallina, E. (2022). The psychological impact of the COVID emergency on Italian nursing homes staff and the effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Frontiers in Psychology, 969028. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.969028

Fernandez, I., Pagani, M., & Gallina, E. (2022). Post-traumatic stress disorder among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy: Effectiveness of an eye movement desensitization and reprocessing intervention protocol. Frontiers in Psychology, 964334. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.964334

Fogliato, E., Invernizzi, R., Maslovaric, G., Fernandez, I., Rigamonti, V., Lora, A., Frisone, E., & Pagani, M. (2022). Promoting mental health in healthcare workers in hospitals through psychological group support with EMDR during COVID-19: An observational study. Frontiers in Psychology: Psychology for Clinical Settings, 794178. Open access: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.794178

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